What GAO Found
In general, GAO’s review of 11 studies found that publicly funded preschool programs contribute to children’s readiness for kindergarten in literacy, math, or both. Specifically, 10 studies found positive associations between preschool programs and kindergarten literacy scores, and seven of the studies that assessed math scores also found positive associations with these scores. One study did not find evidence of an effect in either area.
These studies also suggest that public preschool programs affect student demographic groups differently. For example, one study found that English learners benefitted more from a public preschool program in Virginia than non-English learners. It also found that children from lower-income families benefited more from attending the program than children from higher-income families.
GAO’s analysis of kindergarten entry assessment (KEA) data from five selected states also found a link between preschool, certain demographic factors, and kindergarten readiness. School districts with higher enrollment in public or private preschool were associated with higher kindergarten readiness in three of five selected states, according to GAO’s regression analyses. In addition, higher-poverty school districts were associated with lower readiness in four states.
More broadly, GAO’s analysis of the five selected states’ KEA data shows that less than half of students were ready for kindergarten in each of those states. Readiness rates varied by developmental area (such as language, social, or motor skills), school district urbanicity, and student demographics (see figure).
Kindergarten Readiness by Student Demographics in Five Selected States
Note: For more details, see figure 3 in GAO-27-108796.
Why GAO Did This Study
The early elementary school years are widely understood as critical to helping children create a strong foundation for future academic success—which in turn supports the nation’s economic strength, national security, and civic health. Kindergarten is the main entry point to public school, but not all children enter with the foundational skills that enable them to be ready to learn. While there is no common definition of readiness across states, kindergarten readiness generally refers to the skills and abilities needed to succeed in school.
GAO was asked to review students’ kindergarten readiness. This report describes findings from relevant research about the topic. It also provides information on kindergarten readiness in five selected states.
GAO reviewed 11 research studies in peer-reviewed journals that examined the link between U.S. students’ attendance in publicly funded preschools and kindergarten readiness. GAO selected these studies in part because they examined preschool attendance in the last 10 years (school year 2015–2016 or later). GAO also analyzed KEA data from five states: Connecticut, Florida, Kentucky, Maryland, and Ohio. GAO used the most recent data available (either school year 2023–2024 or 2024–2025) that were comparable with federal data used in GAO’s analysis. GAO selected these states because they had publicly available and reliable KEA data and reported requiring a statewide KEA that assessed literacy and math in school year 2023–2024.
This report follows one GAO issued in 2024 on how states assess kindergarten readiness (GAO-24-106552).
For more information, contact Jacqueline M. Nowicki at NowickiJ@gao.gov.
Source: GAO Reports & Testimonies · 2026-11-12